Language Research

Updated (March 2007)

The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (Luxembourg) is one of the smallest countries in the world. Moreover, it is a rare example of a country where several languages are spoken and written throughout its territory and in different spheres of life. Multilingualism has been clearly defined by the 1984 Language Act. It stipulates that Lëtzebuergesch (Luxembourgish) is the national language of the country; French is used for legislative matters, while German, French and Lëtzebuergesch share the status of judiciary and administrative languages. Furthermore, the trilingual landscape of the country is enriched by the languages of the country's immigrant population (primarily Portuguese and Italian).

HISTORICAL CONTEXT

Luxembourg in its present shape and constituency looks back at a precarious history, when it was part of larger territorial units and three times dismembered before it finally became independent in 1839. Since the linguistic situation in Luxembourg is closely connected to the country's history, it is essential to point out the key stages of its development:

963

The first national identity developed in 963 when Lützenburg (to become Luxembourg in the 19th century) became an independent duchy. At that period, the nation's links with Germanic culture strengthened, especially in the fourteenth century, when Luxembourg's dukes also ruled the German-centered Holy Roman Empire. The common language was High German.

1364

The expansion policy supported by the counts of Luxembourg and a series of conquests to the north and west extended the country substantially in the 14th Century. It was divided into two parts, in which different dialects were spoken: Walloon in the French-speaking area; and Lëtzebuergesch in the German-speaking region. The written and administrative languages were respectively French and German, in their ancient forms. This period is characterized by this juxtaposed bilingualism.

1684

Under the first French occupation by Louis XIV, the use of German was virtually banned. One hundred years later, French gained solid ground and, as a consequence of the French Revolution, started penetrating into the local administration of the German-speaking area as well. Lëtzebuergesch, however, remained the language shared by all in everyday life.

1839

At the London Conference, the Great Powers of the era confirmed Luxembourg's independence but split the country. It was reduced to its present size (2,586 sq. km) and its entire territory located in what was the German-speaking area. The German language was threatening to override the pre-eminence of French, however the lack of support for German officials from William II, King of the Netherlands and Grand Duke of Luxembourg, enabled the influential Luxembourg Notables to impose French as the administrative, legislative and political language.

1843

The industrialization of the country brought significant changes to the balance of the population: a great number of Germans and Italians arrived in Luxembourg while many Luxembourgers emigrated to France or to the United States. During this period, the status of its languages became a political matter. In fact, in order to distinguish Luxembourg from the rest of the German Confederation and to protect the country from any attempt by nationalists to "Germanize" it, a decisive law was passed: French was henceforth introduced as a compulsory school subject, together with German.

1941

In 1941 the people of Luxembourg took the opportunity of a census held by their German oppressors to reassert their language as the symbol of their national identity and to reaffirm Lëtzebuergesch as their only mother tongue, using the census as a kind of referendum.

After the war, the Lëtzebuergesch language was stronger than ever - its vocabulary gradually integrated French words, as a reaction to the linguistic trauma and the question of identity caused and raised by German military occupation. Finally, the revised Constitution of 1948 stated that the Law should regulate the use of languages in administrative and legal matters.

1960

New influxes of immigrants to Luxembourg started changing the linguistic landscape from the 1960s, after the opening of the borders implemented by the Treaty of Rome in 1957. Most of these immigrants used French to communicate with the native peoples. At that time, French was used more often than Lëtzebuergesch.

1984

The law regulating the use of languages granted the status of national language to Lëtzebuergesch in 1984. This law specified, for the first time, that when an application was directed to a public authority in Lëtzebuergesch, French or German, then the authority should seek, whenever possible, to respond in the language chosen by the applicant. Even though Lëtzebuergesch was scarcely used, it is important to note that the Luxembourg language entered public administration through the 1984 law. Its recognition at European level by the "Lingua" program in 1989 represented a further promotion and a confirmation of the socio-cultural re-emergence of Lëtzebuergesch in relation to French and German as had been observed since the 1970s.

THE LINGUISTIC CONSEQUENCES

This history reveals that the language has been a key element in building Luxembourgish national identity.

Currently, Luxembourg is a truly trilingual country: native-born residents speak, read, and write in French, German, and Lëtzebuergesch, switching between them effortlessly. It is almost impossible for a Luxembourger to spend a whole day speaking only one language. This alternation of languages is present in all layers of the society - each of the three languages has its own position.

All legislative acts are written in French: only the French language text is authentic. This is true for all levels of the public administration. On the other hand, spoken French has progressively vanished from Parliament - regular debates are held in Lëtzebuergesch for most of the time. For this service, the language borrows many words from French and German. Hence, accounts of public parliamentary sessions published in the daily newspapers illustrate the skilful mix of languages: the debates are transcribed in Lëtzebuergesch (which represents the highest amount of regular written production in the vernacular); while questions to the Government as well as any legal texts are usually in French. Citizens enjoy the right to choose a language when they make an administrative application, yet the Administration is not strictly bound to respect their preference. In general, the weak presence of German at the national level of public life is counterbalanced by its strong presence at the local level, both spoken and written. Publications from the town council are often bilingual German/French, depending on the percentage of foreigners living in the town.

The manner in which the Luxembourg State is administered is based on a clear balance, preferring French in written texts and Lëtzebuergesch as the spoken language (in the workplace and for communication purposes).

The fact that most Luxembourgers are multilingual and can easily switch from one language to another is wholly due to their system of education. However, their linguistic competencies also depend on social status, age and region. For educated Luxembourgers especially, 'code-switching is a normal and expected pattern of interaction within their multilingual communities'.

After the waves of mass immigration began, compulsory schooling was started at the age of four. This initiative was mainly launched in order to expose immigrant children to the Lëtzebuergesch language as early as possible. The kindergarten, where the language of instruction is Lëtzebuergesch, provides the first contact with the national language. Primary school introduces the other two languages, French and German, alongside Lëtzebuergesch: German being the principal language of instruction. Beginning in the second grade, French is taught as a subject, although instruction is still principally in German. Over the years, French becomes more important and by secondary school replaces German as the language of instruction, with German limited to specialized courses in language and literature. Nevertheless, teachers are sometimes bound to alternate between Lëtzebuergesch, French and German. It should be added that the learning of a fourth compulsory language, English, is included in technical education at lower secondary and secondary levels. Furthermore, students who are enrolled in a languages track in upper secondary education can also learn a fifth foreign language - primarily Italian, Spanish or Portuguese. The multilingual education system in Luxembourg reflects its historical and geographical links with France, Germany and Belgium, and the links arising from immigration, which, historically, has been from Italy, Spain and Portugal. For those students who succeed in this system, multilingualism constitutes an important asset.

Another interesting field in regard to language use is in the media. Whilst German has always been the language of the press par excellence, yet French has slowly but surely come to take up about 20 to 30 percent of editorial space in the major dailies of the country, such as the "Luxemburger Wort" (since 1848), and the "Tageblatt" (1913). From the 1960s, while new weeklies were appearing in German, other newspapers were created giving the word to Portuguese, English and French. Today, for example, if German makes the front page, the other languages also have their headlines. It might therefore be said that the Luxembourg press has always been polyglot. Although, in general, German is dominant in the written media (just as French is dominant in administration), yet no journalist has a problem slipping an extract from a law drafted in French into an article written in German. The choice sometimes depends on the country in which the writer was educated, and sometimes on the subject treated: those who write about domestic politics and local news generally prefer German, and those dealing with economy or culture often opt for French.

THE FUTURE

Nevertheless, the use of language is undergoing changes, both in daily life and in the media. Lëtzebuergesch has gained significant ground on television after the launch of a daily news program in 1991. About ten years later, its simultaneous translation into French offers a choice to viewers and demonstrates a considerable flexibility towards French-speakers. Radio broadcasting is the medium where Lëtzebuergesch is most used. Moreover, immigrant communities are not ignored. Apart from the fact that at least the neighboring countries' main radio stations are available to their nationals, English and the Romance languages, inter alia, have enjoyed a daily presence on the Luxembourg radio waves for several years.

Recent studies have revealed that rather paradoxical mutations of the linguistic situation are occurring: Lëtzebuergesch is gaining increasing importance as a written language, thus replacing French in formal occasions. Over the last 15 years, for example, Luxembourgish literature has become successful and children's books and comics have been translated into Lëtzebuergesch.

On the other hand, multilingualism is also increasing. In general, more Luxembourgers speak better French than ever, as they are going to school longer and have more opportunities to communicate in that language. However, this is not true for most elderly and the less educated people, who are often forced to use French, which they consider a foreign language.

Luxembourgers also speak better German, as they are immersed by German mass media, especially television. Therefore, Lëtzebuergesch is deeply penetrated by German due to the lack of distance between these two languages. Even if functionally standard-Lëtzebuergesch has undoubtedly the status of a language, linguistically it is moving closer to standard German. Whilst French dominates some sectors of professional life and communication between the established population and the newcomers, Lëtzebuergesch is generally accepted as the language of integration and courses in Lëtzebuergesch are becoming more popular with foreigners who choose to stay in Luxembourg. Weber describes the present linguistic situation as follows: "French is what keeps it together, multilingualism (and polyglossia) is what keeps it going, and Lëtzebuergesch is what keeps it apart".

Moreover, since the number of newcomers - immigrants and trans-border commuters - is steadily increasing, many questions are raised regarding their integration, particularly from a linguistic standpoint. Will the newcomers adopt French as the language of wider communication with the locals as it was in the past? Will the Lëtzebuergesch language become an instrument of exclusion or integration? In which way will "multilingual competence" evolve? Experts point out that Luxembourg is an ideal case study for future questions connected to European integration, particularly from a sociolinguistic perspective.

Sources:

1. "About...Languages", Information and Press Service of the Luxembourg Government, http://www.gouvernement.lu/

2. Dominique Portante: The Situation of Modern Language Learning and Teaching in Europe: Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (National Report), European Centre for Modern Languages, http://www.ecml.at/doccentre/doccentre.asp?t=other

3. Report on Ratification of the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities by the member states of the Council of Europe (2006), Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly http://assembly.coe.int

4. The Euromosaic study: Lëtzebuergesch in Luxembourg http://ec.europa.eu/education/policies/lang/languages/langmin/euromosaic/lu1_en.html

5. Mercator-Education, Minority language factsheets - Luxembourg, http://www.mercator-education.org/minority-languages/eu-minorities/luxembourg

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